
Listening and Speaking introduces the topic of “ask about online habits”. Many middle school students have been surfing the Internet for many years, but what they do with the Internet and how much time they spend every day may not be very clear to themselves, nor to other students. This section allows students to investigate their peers' Internet use, which is conducive to their mutual understanding and understanding of the Internet. It can also help them reflect on their own online behavior, learn from other people's good online habits, and get rid of their bad online behavior.The listening text of this section is an investigation interview. The investigators interview specific groups with the same questions to obtain information, so as to understand their views, practices or attitudes on this issue. There are two specific questions: “how much time do you spend online every day? What do you usually do online?”. The answers of the three respondents provide rich and different information, and achieve the purpose of the investigators. The oral discourse structure of survey interviews generally includes greeting and explaining the purpose of the interview, presenting the interview questions and the respondents' answers. Listening and Talking introduces the theme of “choosing the right application ". Listening text is a conversation between Laura and Xiao Bo. In this part of listening, “oink”; “piggy bank” may cause the students' hearing comprehension limitation. Oink refers to sound word and pig's sound. So, add some oink to my piggy bank is often used to describe "making a little money".1. Guide students to understand the content of listening texts in terms of listening for definitions.2. Cultivate students' ability to define words and understand an investigation interview.

Paragraph 3. Jan decided to start an IT club to teach old people how to use computers and the Internet. Paragraph 4. Jan has started taking online classes to learn more about how to use the Internet to make society better. Paragraph 5. Jan’s life has been greatly improved by the Internet. Step 5: Critical thinking:(1)How do you arrange your time spent on study and the Internet? Is it reasonable? I usually surf the Internet using my mobile phone for only an hour after class, and it is reasonable for me.(2)What are your online activities? Are they safe? I chat with my friends, read news and play games. I never give away my private information so I think they are safe.Step 4: summary Much has been written about the wonders of the World Wide Web. There are countless articles (1)______(tell) us how the Internet has made our lives more convenient. But the Internet has done a lot (2)_____(much) for people than simply make life more convenient. People’s lives (3) _________________(change) by online communities and social networks so far. Take Jan for example, who developed a serious illness that made her (4)_____(stick) at home with only her computer to keep (5)___(she) company. She joined an online group (6)______ she could share problems, support and advice with others. She considered the ability to remove the distance between people as one of the greatest (7)_______(benefit). She was so inspired (8)____ she started an IT club in which many people have been helped. She has started to learn more about how to use the Internet to make society better. Her next goal is to start a charity website to raise money (9)___ children in poor countries. Jan’s life has been (10)______(great) improved by the Internet. Step 5 Homework:Review what we have learned and find out the key language points in the text.

⑦identity theft 身份盜竊⑧chat room 聊天室⑨draft your blog post 起草博客帖子⑩post embarrassing photos 張貼尷尬照片 【話題句式】 1. How do you stay safe online and avoid bad experiences on the Internet? 你如何在網(wǎng)上保持安全, 避免在網(wǎng)上的不良經(jīng)歷? 2. I’m not an expert, but many years as a blogger have taught me a thing or two. 我不是專家, 但作為一個博主, 我已經(jīng)學了好幾年了。 3. If you see or read something that makes you feel uncomfortable, leave the site immediately. 如果你看到或讀到一些讓你覺得不舒服的東西, 立即離開這個網(wǎng)站。4. Don’t give out your address or phone number. 別告訴別人你的地址或電話號碼。 5. Identity theft is a common and serious problem. 身份盜竊是一個常見而嚴重的問題。6. Being online is no excuse for being rude, and you don’t want to become a target for a troll or cyberbully. 上網(wǎng)并不是無禮的借口, 你也不想成為發(fā)挑釁帖子的人或網(wǎng)絡(luò)惡霸的目標。 7. Trolls often use several false names so that they can stay on a site. 發(fā)挑釁帖子的人經(jīng)常使用幾個假名, 這樣他們就可以留在一個網(wǎng)站上。8. However, the more polite you are, the less likely it is you will be attacked. 然而, 你越有禮貌, 你被攻擊的可能性就越小。

Listening and Speaking introduces the topic of “Take part in a youth project”. The listening text is an interview about "sharing views on historical sites". Through listening to a dialogue between Chinese and foreign students on the way to the Confucius Temple, students can understand their views on the Confucius Temple, Confucius, Confucius' descendants and Confucius' educational thoughts, so as to realize and think about the profound influence of Confucius and his thoughts on Chinese historical tradition. At the same time, the dialogue naturally integrates English idioms and mentions Shakespeare, the British playwright, so as to provide language materials and context for students to understand English idioms and related cultural allusions, as well as to compare Chinese and foreign cultures, which is helpful for students to understand and express the language such as history, tradition, culture and custom significant impact.Text analysis: listening text is a dialogue between a British student and a Chinese student when he goes to the Confucius Temple. When William, a British student, visited the Confucius Temple, he asked Xiao Kong, a Chinese student, for directions. Xiao Kong was just going to the Confucius Temple to meet with the members of the research group, so they went together and exchanged their views on the Confucius Temple, Confucius, Confucius' descendants and Confucius' educational thoughts. From the perspective of foreign tourists, this paper describes their thoughts on Confucius, the great son of Confucius, who had a profound impact on Chinese history and cultural tradition, and his education.Listening and Talking introduces a visit to a historic tourist destination. Tourism is a common way to understand a country's history, culture, and customs and so on. Students listen to the dialogue between Xiao Yan, a youth hostel Usher, and Paul, a backpacker, to learn about Pingyao's famous historical and cultural attractions and Paul's travel experience and experience as a foreign tourist.

這個地區(qū)有著深厚的傳統(tǒng)。既學既練:為了讓更多的外國游客了解中國文化,欣賞中國美麗的自然風光,感受中國發(fā)生的巨大變化,某外文雜志社將出版一本英語小冊子來介紹中國的旅游景點。該雜志社邀請你為該小冊子寫一篇英語短文來介紹杭州,內(nèi)容包括:1.杭州的位置(中國東南部)、面積(16 000多平方公里)及歷史(2 200多年)等;2.杭州的旅游特色(自然風景、傳統(tǒng)文化、特色小吃等);3.希望更多的游客來杭州參觀。注意:1.詞數(shù)80左右;2.可適當增加細節(jié),以使行文連貫。Located in the southeast of China, Hangzhou is a beautiful city.Dating back more than 2,200 years, Hangzhou covers an area of more than 16,000 square kilometers.In Hangzhou, you can visit the West Lake, whose scenery is fascinating.In addition, you can’t miss its cultural relics and historical sites, from which you will learn more about excellent Chinese traditional culture and traditions.In Hangzhou, the special snacks are famous and visitors from different parts of the world think highly of them.As a tourist attraction, Hangzhou attracts a large number of visitors from home and abroad every year.Once you come to China, Hangzhou is a scenic spot you can’t miss.

Step1:自主探究。1.(教材P52)Born(bear) in the USA on 2 January 1970, Whitacre began studying music at the University of Nevada in 1988.2.(教材P52) Moved(move) by this music, he said, “It was like seeing color for the first time.”3.(教材P56)I was very afraid and I felt so alone and discouraged(discourage).4.(教材P58)Encouraged(encourage) by this first performance and the positive reaction of the audience, I have continued to play the piano and enjoy it more every day.Step2:語法要點精析。用法1:過去分詞作表語1).過去分詞可放在連系動詞be, get, feel, remain, seem, look, become等之后作表語,表示主語所處的狀態(tài)Tom was astonished to see a snake moving across the floor.湯姆很驚訝地看到一條蛇正爬過地板。Finally the baby felt tired of playing with those toys.終于嬰兒厭倦了玩那些玩具。注意:1).過去分詞作表語時與被動語態(tài)的區(qū)別過去分詞作表語時,強調(diào)主語所處的狀態(tài);而動詞的被動語態(tài)表示主語是動作的承受者,強調(diào)動作。The library is now closed.(狀態(tài))圖書館現(xiàn)在關(guān)閉了。The cup was broken by my little sister yesterday.(動作)昨天我妹妹把杯子打碎了。2)感覺類及物動詞的現(xiàn)在分詞與過去分詞作表語的區(qū)別過去分詞作表語多表示人自身的感受或事物自身的狀態(tài),常譯作“感到……的”;現(xiàn)在分詞多表示事物具有的特性,常譯作“令人……的”。

This section focuses on "learning about experiencing music Online". This virtual choir is a new form of music performance. Members from all over the world don't need to love to come to a place. Instead, they use the new technology to model the various parts and wonderful virtual harmony group of music in the family. Students need to understand the main meaning of each paragraph. Finding topic sentences is an important way to understand the general idea of a paragraph. After the topic sentence, it is usually the detail sentence that supports and explains the topic sentence. Some paragraphs have obvious subject sentences, for example, the first sentence of the second paragraph is the subject sentence of the paragraph, and the following sentenceStudents need to pay attention to the topic sentences and key sentences, and then pay attention to how the sentences after the meaning explain, explain and support the topic sentences or key sentences before.1.Guide students to learn about experiencing music online2.Guide students to scan and circle the information in the text.3.Guide students to find the numbers and dates to fill in the timeline.4.Guide students to learn more about music by completing the sentences with the correct forms of the words and phrases. And then make a mind map about the outline of the passage.1. Guide students to pay attention to reading strategies, such as prediction, self-questioning and scanning.2. Help students sort out the main meaning of each paragraph and understand the narrative characteristics of "timeline” in illustrative style.3. Lead students to understand the changes that have been caused by the Internet.

The joke set her crying.這個玩笑使她哭起來。Step 5 ReadingActivity 31. Students read the small text in activity 3. The teacher provides several small questions to check whether students understand the content of the text and the ideographic function of the -ing form in the text.*Where are those people?*Why did Dr Bethune come to China?*How did he help the Chinese people during the war?*What did Chairman Mao Zedong say about him?2. Ss try to rewrite some sentences using the -ing form. Then check the answers. When checking the answers, the teacher can ask different students to read the rewritten sentences and give comments.Answers:1. he became very interested in medicine, deciding to become a doctor.2. …after hearing that many people were dying in the war.3. Helping to organise hospitals, he taught doctors and nurses, and showed people how to give first aid./ He helped to organise hospitals, teaching doctors and nurses, and showing people how to give first aid.4. …praising Dr Bethune as a hero to be remembered in China.Step 6 PracticeActivity 4Students complete grammar activities 2 and 3 on page 69 of the workbook.Step 6 Homework1. Understand and master the functions and usage of the -ing form;2. Finish the other exercises in Using structures.1、通過本節(jié)內(nèi)容學習,學生是否理解和掌握動詞-ing形式作賓語補足語語和狀語語的功能和意義;2、通過本節(jié)內(nèi)容學習,學生能否正確使用動詞-ing形式描述人物的行為、動作及其經(jīng)歷;3、通過本節(jié)內(nèi)容學習,學生能否獨立完成練習冊和導(dǎo)學案中的相關(guān)練習。

1.生產(chǎn)上的聯(lián)系:有投入——產(chǎn)出的關(guān)系工業(yè)生產(chǎn)的過程復(fù)雜,工序繁多,往往需要經(jīng)過多家工廠的加工才能完成一種產(chǎn)品的生產(chǎn)過程。因此,在這些工廠之間就存在著產(chǎn)品與原料的聯(lián)系。一家工廠生產(chǎn)的產(chǎn)品是另一家工廠的原料,這兩家工廠之間就形成了工序上的工業(yè)聯(lián)系。2.非生產(chǎn)上的聯(lián)系:如地理空間上的聯(lián)系布局在同一個工業(yè)區(qū)內(nèi),共同利用工業(yè)區(qū)的道路、供水、供電、通信等基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施以及其他生產(chǎn)、生活服務(wù)設(shè)施,或者共同利用當?shù)亓畠r的勞動力,形成了空間利用上的工業(yè)聯(lián)系。我國許多地方的經(jīng)濟技術(shù)開發(fā)區(qū)就是建立在這種工業(yè)聯(lián)系基礎(chǔ)上的。(二)工業(yè)集聚1.形成具有工業(yè)聯(lián)系的一些工廠往往近距離地聚集起來,形成工業(yè)集聚現(xiàn)象。2.工業(yè)集聚可獲得效應(yīng)(1)工業(yè)集聚可以加強企業(yè)間的信息交流和技術(shù)協(xié)作,降低中間產(chǎn)品的運輸費用和能源消耗,進而降低生產(chǎn)成本,提高生產(chǎn)效率和利潤,取得規(guī)模效益。

巴金在十年浩劫中的大致經(jīng)歷:放棄包弟并沒有換得保全一家人,1968年8月,巴金被關(guān)進牛棚改造,隨后經(jīng)受了大字報、掛牌游街等形式的批斗。1970年,到農(nóng)村改造,掏大糞、喂豬、背稻草、種地……1972年,妻子蕭珊在飽受精神折磨后患上癌癥,病逝。巴金的兒子在勞動改造的過程中也飽受精神和肉體上的折磨,性格變得內(nèi)向抑郁,疾病纏身。此時,巴金69歲。巴金曾在《病中》一文寫道:“當姚文元拿著棒子的時候,我給關(guān)在牛棚里除了唯唯諾諾之外,敢于做過什么事情?十年間我不過是一條含著眼淚等人宰割的牛?!毙〗Y(jié):(幻燈片12)社會是病態(tài)的社會,政治是高壓的政治,人性是扭曲的人性。十年文革,十年浩劫,給多少人留下了累累不可彌合的精神創(chuàng)傷。即使一條小狗,也可能擺脫不了“文革”無情的迫害,比如包弟,比如藝術(shù)家鄰居的小狗。

教學過程:一、交流誦讀課文技巧?!?jié)奏、韻腳、感情……(5分鐘)二、再讀確定自己的學習主題(15分)1、主題提示:音樂美、繪畫美、建筑美簡介詩歌“三美”追求聞一多先生是我國現(xiàn)代文學史上集詩人、學者和斗士于一身的重要詩人。他不但致力于新詩藝術(shù)美的探索,提出了音樂美、繪畫美、建筑美的詩歌\"三美\"的新格律詩理論主張,還努力進行創(chuàng)作實踐,寫出了許多精美詩篇。他的新格律詩理論被后人稱為現(xiàn)代詩學的奠基石,影響深遠?!对姷母衤伞肥锹勔欢嘞壬盗性娬撝凶钪匾囊黄T谶@篇論文中,他系統(tǒng)的提出\"詩的實力不獨包括音樂的美(音節(jié))、繪畫的美(詞藻),并且還有建筑的美(節(jié)的勻稱和句的均齊)。\"這一關(guān)于新詩\"三美\"主張遂成為新格律詩派的理論綱領(lǐng)。

書法藝術(shù)的繁榮期,是從東漢開始的東漢時期出現(xiàn)了專門的書法理論著作,最早的書法理論提出者是東西漢之交的揚雄第一部書法理論專著是東漢時期崔瑗的《草書勢》漢代書法家可分為兩類:一類是漢隸書家,以蔡邕為代表一類是草書家,以杜度、崔瑗、張芝為代表,張芝被后人稱之為“草圣”最能代表漢代書法特色的,莫過於是碑刻和簡牘上的書法東漢碑刻林立,這一時期的碑刻,以漢隸刻之,字型方正,法度謹嚴、波磔分明此時隸書已登峰造極漢代創(chuàng)興草書,草書的誕生,在書法藝術(shù)的發(fā)展史上有著重大意義它標志著書法開始成為一種能夠高度自由的抒發(fā)情感,表現(xiàn)書法家個性的藝術(shù)草書的最初階段是草隸,到了東漢時期,草隸進一步發(fā)展,形成了章草,后由張芝創(chuàng)立了今草,即草書

三、指導(dǎo)第一段的背誦,點撥理解句意,強調(diào)關(guān)鍵詞語,注重文言基礎(chǔ)知識教學。過程中要讓學生反復(fù)讀背。背誦線索:時間——地點——事件——人物——環(huán)境——活動——天氣——感覺。時間:永和九年,歲在癸丑,暮春之初。地點:會于會稽山陰之蘭亭。事件:修稧事也。人物:群賢畢至,少長咸集。環(huán)境:此地有崇山峻嶺,茂林修竹;又有清流激湍,映帶左右。活動:引以為流觴曲水,列坐其次。雖無絲竹管弦之盛,一觴一詠,亦足以暢敘幽情。天氣:是日也,天朗氣清,惠風和暢。感覺:仰觀宇宙之大,俯察品類之盛,所以極視聽之娛,信可樂也。四、學生自讀背誦5分鐘。五、抽一至二名學生試背課文,教師可作必要的線索提示。第二課時一、聽名家示范朗誦,學生小聲跟讀。二、復(fù)習鞏固第一自然段的閱讀背誦。三、朗讀、解析第二自然段,理解文章“由敘入感”的寫作結(jié)構(gòu)。

五.研習第一段:1.誦讀指導(dǎo)要處理好句中停頓2.請學生對照注釋翻譯本段重點詞句:學不可以已已:停止。青,取之于藍而青于藍于:從;比。木直中繩中:zhàng符合,合于。雖有槁暴,不復(fù)挺者,揉使之然也有通又,揉通煣,以火烘木,使其彎曲。然:這樣。翻譯:故木受繩則直,金就礪則利,君子博學而日參省乎己,則知明而行無過矣。所以木材經(jīng)墨線畫過(再用斧鋸加工)就直了,金屬刀劍拿到磨刀石上(磨過)就鋒利了,君子廣博地學習并且每天對自己檢驗反省,就能智慧明達,行為沒有過錯了。3.本段是從哪個角度論述中心論點的?明確:本段是從學習的意義這個角度論述中心論點的。荀子認為人的知識、道德、才能都不是天生成的,而是后天不斷學習獲得的,學習的意義十分重大,所以學習不能停止。4.本段中幾個比喻句是為了說明什么道理?學生討論發(fā)言,教師明確:

結(jié)合歷史自古以來,江山美人歷來都是引無數(shù)英雄豪杰競折腰的,如果說英雄選擇了美人卻丟了江山,把所有罪名都歸結(jié)于“女人是禍水”。但是,紂王無道,和有了妲己有必然的聯(lián)系嗎?有人說妲己壞透了,壞透了的妲己如果不是取得紂王的信任是壞不起來的,紂王聽信了妲己的讒言,聽與不聽決定權(quán)在紂王,而不在妲己。強勢永遠在紂王一邊。再來看看西施和楊貴妃:西施是作為越國貢獻給吳國的供品來到吳王夫差的身邊的,楊貴妃更是先是李隆基的兒媳婦被看中而得寵的。所以,西施和楊貴妃這兩個可憐的女人根本沒有自己的獨立選擇,沒有獨立的愛情,如果沒有西施,就會有南施,或北施;如果沒有楊貴妃,就會有李貴妃,王貴妃,總之什么施,什么妃是不能少的,因為那是吳王和李隆基的需要。

【明確】“一夫當關(guān),萬夫莫開”言劍閣有易守難攻的險要形勢,暗示中央朝廷的部隊很不容易打進來,因而野心家可以據(jù)險發(fā)動叛亂,“化為狼與豺”,搞地方割據(jù)。如果割據(jù)勢力之間出現(xiàn)矛盾沖突,難免要發(fā)生混戰(zhàn),結(jié)果必定是“殺人如麻”。詩人這番預(yù)言在十多年后就得到了證實:從上元二年到大歷初即有段子璋、徐知道、崔旰等人相繼發(fā)動叛亂。詩人的意圖是要嚴防野心家發(fā)難。詩人從劍閣的險要引出對政治形勢的描寫。他化用西晉張載《劍閣銘》中形勝之地,匪親勿居的語句,目的在于勸人引以為鑒戒,警惕戰(zhàn)亂的發(fā)生,并聯(lián)系當時的社會背景,揭露了蜀中豺狼的磨牙吮血,殺人如麻,這既是描寫蜀道猛獸,又是影射政治黑暗的雙關(guān)語句,表達了對國事的憂慮與關(guān)切,為詩篇增加了現(xiàn)實的內(nèi)涵、深厚的意蘊。唐天寶初年,太平景象背后正潛伏著危機,后來發(fā)生的安史之亂,證明詩人的憂慮是有現(xiàn)實意義的。

①從政府人員組成看,南京政府是一個以資產(chǎn)階級革命派為主體的政府。②從政府頒發(fā)的法令和措施看,這些法令體現(xiàn)了資產(chǎn)階級民主革命的要求,對于發(fā)展民族資本主義經(jīng)濟、資產(chǎn)階級民主政治和文化教育以及改革社會風氣,都起了積極作用。③從頒布的《中華民國臨時約法》看,憲法體現(xiàn)了三權(quán)分立的政治體制,體現(xiàn)了資產(chǎn)階級民主主義的要求,是中國歷史上第一部資產(chǎn)階級民主憲法,具有反封建專制制度的進步意義。(2)從南京臨時政府的內(nèi)外政策分析南京政府的根本弱點①未徹底地反封建。它沒有采取比較徹底的反對封建主義的措施,特別是對封建統(tǒng)治的基礎(chǔ)——地主階級土地所有制沒有觸動,這樣,南京臨時政府也就不能真正地把廣大人民群眾動員起來,因而缺乏真正的群眾基礎(chǔ)。

1.知識與能力:(1)通過引導(dǎo)學生分析鑒賞19世紀以來有代表性的音樂與美術(shù)作品,了解這些作品產(chǎn)生的時代背景及其藝術(shù)價值。(2)通過分析世界藝術(shù)產(chǎn)生的歷史背景,可以幫助學生正確認識人類文化的多樣性、時代性和民族性,培養(yǎng)學生結(jié)合歷史背景分析歷史問題的能力。(3)通過對19世紀以來的音樂與美術(shù)史實的分析、綜合、比較、歸納、概括等認知活動,培養(yǎng)歷史思維和解決問題的能力。2.過程與方法:(1)讓學生在搜集資料、自主探究、合作交流過程中,發(fā)展學生在社會中學習、網(wǎng)絡(luò)學習、終身學習的能力。(2)通過上網(wǎng)了解藝術(shù)大師及分析鑒賞其各類美術(shù)、音樂作品,感受其藝術(shù)價值。 (3)思維方法:學會知識遷移,在從感知歷史到不斷積累歷史知識,進而不斷加深對歷史和現(xiàn)實的理解過程中,提高分析理解問題能力。學會善于從不同的角度發(fā)現(xiàn)問題,積極探索解決問題的方法,從而做到論從史出、史論結(jié)合。

教材分析改革開放后我國的綜合國力不斷增強,人民對祖國統(tǒng)一的愿望越來越迫切。本節(jié)課以“一國兩制”構(gòu)想的提出,香港、澳門的回歸和海峽兩岸關(guān)系的發(fā)展為中心,說明實現(xiàn)祖國統(tǒng)一,完成中華民族復(fù)興是歷史發(fā)展的必然。第一目“‘一國兩制’構(gòu)想的提出”主要講述了“一國兩制”的含義及歷史意義。第二目“香港、澳門的回歸”著重講述了香港回歸、澳門回歸的經(jīng)過及歷史意義,這是“一國兩制”成功的實踐。第三目“海峽兩岸關(guān)系的發(fā)展”講述了大陸注重發(fā)展與臺灣的關(guān)系,促進海峽兩岸的經(jīng)濟文化交流與合作,打破了幾十年來海峽兩岸的隔絕狀態(tài),促進了祖國統(tǒng)一的進程。此外,教材還通過“資料回放”“歷史縱橫”“學思之窗”等欄目,為學生學習提供了一些詳細的史料。在教學中要分析圖表資料,引導(dǎo)學生理解完成祖國統(tǒng)一大業(yè),實現(xiàn)中華民族的復(fù)興,是任何人也阻擋不了的歷史潮流。

中國古代商業(yè)的發(fā)展有哪些表現(xiàn)?綜觀中國古代歷史,商業(yè)在不同的歷史時期有不同的表現(xiàn)。主要表現(xiàn)在:(1)商業(yè)活動的場所的變化:先主要在城市中進行,后來農(nóng)村集市貿(mào)易逐漸發(fā)展。唐時加快,明清時突出,出現(xiàn)了專業(yè)性的市集(如絲市、葉市、豬市等),以至逐漸形成了新興的市鎮(zhèn)(有的更是專業(yè)性的集散市集);而不是先有農(nóng)村商業(yè),而后才有城市商業(yè)的發(fā)展。(2)交易內(nèi)容的變化:商業(yè)開始時以販運、交流地區(qū)間的土特產(chǎn)品,經(jīng)營統(tǒng)治者所需要的奢侈品為主要內(nèi)容,以后隨著商品貨幣經(jīng)濟的發(fā)展,市場商品種類增多、行業(yè)分細,為一般人民所需要的主要農(nóng)副產(chǎn)品以及城市手工業(yè)所生產(chǎn)的大小商品在整個流通界地位提高。這種情況在宋代已經(jīng)顯現(xiàn)。(3)交易媒介的變化:商品交換最原始的形態(tài)是物物交換,不存在交易的媒介。隨著商品交換的內(nèi)容和地域的擴大,出現(xiàn)了以貝殼等為代表的一般等價物。
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